Description
Taxonomy
| Kingdom | Phylum | Class | Order | Family | Genus |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Animalia | Hexapoda | Insecta | Diptera | Muscidae | Stomoxys |
Synonyms
Invasion History
Chesapeake Bay Status
| First Record | Population | Range | Introduction | Residency | Source Region | Native Region | Vectors |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1799 | Established | Stable | Introduced | Boundary Resident | Europe | Eurasia | Agriculture(Agricultural Weed),Shipping(unspecified) |
History of Spread
Stomoxys calcitrans (Stable Fly), 'has followed man and his domestic animals around the world; furthermore it has caught up with them. It is often called the biting housefly' (Cole 1969). This fly may be of African origin, but it has apparently been associated with humans and their domestic animals for many centuries before its description in 1762 (Cole 1969; Howard 1920). It was first reported from North America by Fabricius in 1781 (Stone et al. 1965), and is now distributed from Canada to Argentina (Cole 1969). This fly is most commonly associated with dwellings and barnyards, and is regarded as a serious agricultural pest in much of its range, because of its biting of livestock (Frank et al. 1997; Pickens et al. 1992; Simmons and Dove 1941; Simmons 1944, Skidmore 1985). It also constitutes a major problem on shorelines, where it breeds in piles of stranded aquatic plants. Specific reports of shoreline infestations are from the Gulf Coast (FL, AL, MS) (Simmons and Dove 1941) and from Currituck Sound NC (Apperson et al. 1980).
Stomoxys calcitrans probably arrived in the Chesapeake Bay region soon after the arrival of European colonists and their animals. It is probably widespread in terrestrial habitats throughout the Bay watershed. It was abundant on a Piedmont farm near Clarksville MD (Howard County) (Pickens et al. 1992). Adults of S. calcitrans were found in brackish tidal marshes at Kent (Queen Anne's County) and Deal Islands (Somerset County) on the Eastern Shore of MD (Bickley and Seek 1975). In Currituck Sound NC, larvae of S. calcitrans were found in decomposing Myriophyllum spicatum (Eurasian Watermilfoil), following the invasion of that plant (Apperson and Axtell 1981). Similar infestations are likely to have occurred in the Chesapeake with invasions of M. spicatum in the 1950's and 60's, and with Hydrilla verticillata (Hydrilla) in the 1980's. The breeding of noxious insects was mentioned as one of the consequences of the M. spicatum outbreak in the Chesapeake (Stevenson and Confer 1978), but this species was not specifically mentioned.
Native aquatic plants, including freshwater submerged aquatic vegetation species [e.g., Vallisneria americana (Wild Celery), seagrasses (in FL Thalassia spp. and Halophila spp.; in the Chesapeake Zostera marina (Eelgrass), and Ruppia maritima (Widgeongrass), and seaweeds (Enteromorpha sp., Sargassum sp.) also make a good breeding medium for this fly (Simmons and Dove 1941).
History References - Apperson and Axtell 1981; Bickley and Seek 1975; Cole 1969; Frank et al. 1997; Howard 1920; Pickens et al. 1992; Simmons 1944; Simmons and Dove 1941; Skidmore 1985; Stevenson and Confer 1978; Stone et al. 1965
Invasion Comments
Residency - Stomoxys calcitrans is predominantly terrestrial in its habits, and is known most commonly from barnyards, stables, etc., where it breeds in damp, decomposing vegetation (Cole 1969; Swain 1947). However, another common habitat is intertidal strandlines, where this fly breeds in accumulated submerged aquatic vegetation and seaweeds (Apperson and Axtell 1981; Bickley and Seek 1975; Simmons and Dove 1941). Therefore we list it here as a boundary resident.
Source Region - Stomoxys calcitrans may be of tropical, possibly African origin, but has long been associated with domestic animals in Europe (Cole 1969; Frank et al. 1997; Skidmore 1985).
Ecology
Environmental Tolerances
| For Survival | For Reproduction | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Minimum | Maximum | Minimum | Maximum | |
| Temperature (ºC) | 15.0 | 32.0 | ||
| Salinity (‰) | 0.0 | |||
| Oxygen | ||||
| pH | ||||
| Salinity Range | fresh-eu |
Age and Growth
| Male | Female | |
|---|---|---|
| Minimum Adult Size (mm) | ||
| Typical Adult Size (mm) | ||
| Maximum Adult Size (mm) | ||
| Maximum Longevity (yrs) | ||
| Typical Longevity (yrs |
Reproduction
| Start | Peak | End | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Reproductive Season | |||
| Typical Number of Young Per Reproductive Event |
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| Sexuality Mode(s) | |||
| Mode(s) of Asexual Reproduction |
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| Fertilization Type(s) | |||
| More than One Reproduction Event per Year |
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| Reproductive Startegy | |||
| Egg/Seed Form |
Impacts
Economic Impacts in Chesapeake Bay
Stomoxys calcitrans (Stable Fly) is an important livestock and human pest on agricultural lands in the Chesapeake watershed (Pickens et al. 1992). Its occurrence in tidal marshes of the Bay (Bickley and Seek 1975), and its breeding on the shores of Currituck Sound NC, just to the south (Apperson and Axtel 1980), suggests that it has the potential to be a nuisance to people on the shoreline of the Bay. Along Currituck Sound in 1977, the abundance of S. calcitrans did not reach levels sufficient to cause significant problems, but weather, tide, and flooding conditions are likely to cause the breeding habitat for this fly to vary greatly from year to year (Apperson and Axtel 1981). Based on experiences on the Gulf Coast (Simmons and Dove 1941), conditions at the peak of the Myriophyllum spicatum (Eurasian Watermilfoil) (Stevenson and Confer 1978) and Hydrilla verticillata invasions (Carter and Rybicki 1994a) may have been conducive to breeding of S. calcitrans. However, this has not been documented.
References - Apperson and Axtel 1981; Bickley and Seek 1975; Carter and Rybicki 1994a; Simmons and Dove 1941; Stevenson and Confer 1978
Economic Impacts Outside of Chesapeake Bay
Stomoxys calcitrans (Stable Fly) is an important livestock pest throughout North America and much of the world (Cole 1969; Skidmore 1985). In FL, the muscid flies S. calcitrans, Musca domestica, and Haematobia irritans, together are estimated to cause losses of 94 million dollars to the cattle industry annually (Frank et al. 1997). On the FL Gulf coast, S. calcitrans was 'causing cattle to seek refuge in swamps, where many of them mire and die' (Simmons and Dove 1941). In North America, it is not considered an important disease vector (Cole 1969), but is known to transmit Trypanosoma spp., Streptoccus sp., Anthrax sp., Hablonema sp., Hepatazoon pernicosum, and eggs of Dermatobia cyaneiventris, particularly in tropical countries (Skidmore 1985).
Outbreaks of Biting Flies such as Stomatoxys calcitrans in seaside resort areas clearly have adverse economic consequences. Dense populations have occured over about 400 miles of the Gulf coast FL shoreline, usually in August-October (Simmons and Dove 1941).
The obvious control method is cleaning up piles of decaying vegetation suitable for breeding (Cole 1969), but on the Gulf coast shorelines, it is a common practice to spray driftlines of vegetation with insecticides. The environmental impacts of this have not been studied, but such spraying could interfere with the normal invertebrate and microbial communities which decompose these deposits (Apperson and Axtel 1981).
References - Apperson and Axtel 1981; Cole 1969; Simmons and Dove 1941; Skidmore 1985
Ecological Impacts on Chesapeake Native Species
Stomoxys calcitrans (Stable Fly), as a biting fly feeding on mammalian blood, is a potential irritant to Odocoileus virginianus (White-tailed Deer) and and other mammals living in coastal areas. However, many native flies also have these feeding habits.
Ecological Impacts on Other Chesapeake Non-Native Species
Stomoxys calcitrans (Stable Fly) is a major pest to domestic livestock, and a potential disease vector (Cole 1969; Simmons 1944; Skidmore 1985). Biting flies are a major irritant to Equus caballus (ponies ), and to deer, including the introduced Cervus nippon (Sika Deer) (Keiper 1990) Assateague Island. The relative role of S. calcitrans, compared to native flies, is unknown.
References- Cole 1969; Keiper 1990; Simmons 1944; Skidmore 198
References
Apperson, Charles S.; Axtell, Richard C. (1981) Arthropods associated with shoreline deposits of Eurasian watermilfoil in the Currituck Sound, North Carolina, Journal of the Georgia Entomological Society 16: 53-59Bickley, William E.; Seek, Timothy R. (1975) Insects in four Maryland marshes., Agricultural Experiment Station University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland: Miscellaneous Publications 870: 1-27
Carter, Virginia; Rybicki, N. B. (1994) Invasions and declines of submersed macrophytes in the tidal Potomac River and estuary, the Currituck Sound-Back Bay system, and the Pamlico River estuary, Lake and Reservoir Management 10: 39-48
Cole, Frank R. (1969) The Flies of Western North America, , Berkeley and Los Angeles. Pp.
Frank, J. Howard; McCoy, Earl D.; Hall, H. Glenn; O'Meara, George F.; Tschinkel, Walter R. (1997) Immigation and introduction of insects., In: Simberloff, D., Schmitz, D. C., and Brown, T. C.(Eds.) Strangers in Paradise: Impact and Management of Nonindigenous Species in Florida. , Washington, D.C.. Pp. 75-97
Howard, Leland O. (1920) The Insect Book, , Garden City, NY. Pp.
Keiper, Ronald R. (1990) Biology of large grazing mammals on the Virginia Barrier Islands, Virginia Journal of Science 41: 352-363
Mills, Edward L.; Scheuerell, Mark D.; Carlton, James T.; Strayer, David (1997) Biological invasions in the Hudson River: an inventory and historical analysis., New York State Museum Circular 57: 1-51
Pickens, Lawerence, G.; Miller, R. W.; Thomas, G. D.; Hayes, D. K. (1992) Distribution and dispersal of stable flies (Diptera: Muscidae) on a Maryland farm, The Journal of Agricultural Entomology 9: 1-10
Simmons, S. W. (1944) Observations on the biology of the Stablefly in Florida, Journal of Economic Entomology 37: 680-686
Simmons, S. W.; Dove, W. E. (1941) Breeding places of the Stablefly or 'Dog Fly' Stomoxys calcitrans (L.) in northwestern Florida, Journal of Economic Entomology 34: 457-462
Skidmore, Peter (1985) The Biology of the Muscidae of the World, , Dordrecht. Pp.
Stevenson, J. Court; Confer, Nedra M. (1978) Summary of available information on Chesapeake Bay submersed vegetation, , Annapolis MD. Pp.
Stone, Alan; Sabrosky, Curtis; Wirth, Willis W.; Foote, Richard; Coulson, Jack H. (1965) A catalog of the Diptera of North America north of Mexico, , Washington, D.C.. Pp.
Swain, Ralph B. (1948) The Insect Guide, , Garden City, NY. Pp.